Historical Background to the Russian-Ukrainian Conflict and the Donbas War Episode-1
A devastating war has been raging in Europe since 2014. Looking at the devastation caused by this war, it seems that a smaller version of Syria, Libya, or Yemen has been set up in the corner of sophisticated and well-equipped Europe. But the mainstream media (which tops the list in the Western world) has generally refrained from covering the devastation of the war for political reasons. The battlefield is located in eastern Europe, the second largest state in Eastern Europe.
In 2014, Ukraine experienced a severe political crisis, and two eastern Ukrainian provinces (Donetsk and Luhansk) declared independence from Ukraine. The Ukrainian government sent troops there to regain control of Donetsk and Luhansk, and as a result, Donetsk and Luhansk began a war with Ukraine, which is still ongoing. The People’s Republic of Donetsk and the People’s Republic of Luhansk currently have their own governments, legislatures, constitutions, flags, armed forces, the judiciary, and other state institutions. The Ukrainian government has no control over the territories controlled by the two republics. (Independent)
From the point of view of the Ukrainian government, this is not a war. From 2014–2016, the Ukrainian government called the war an “anti-terrorist operation in eastern Ukraine” (Ukrainian:: на на сході України, “Antiretroviral Operatasia or Skhodi in Ukraine”). Since 2016, they have been calling it a ‘joint operation’ (Ukrainian: об об’єднаних сил, ‘operation obiyedannik seal’). From the point of view of Donetsk and Luhansk, this war is an attack on them by the Ukrainian government, and they are only resisting the ‘Ukrainian attack.’ From the point of view of Russia, the main supporter of Donetsk and Luhansk, the war was essentially a “Ukrainian civil war.” And in it, the pro-Western and anti-Russian West Ukrainian-based Ukrainian government is fighting pro-Russian and anti-Western Eastern Ukraine-based Donetsk and Luhansk. This article has referred to this war as the ‘Donbas War’ to maintain neutrality.
Donbas is the name of a historical, economic, and cultural region in southeastern Ukraine. The word ‘Donbas’ (Russian: Донбасс) is an acronym for the Russian word ‘угольный бассейн’ or Donetsky Ugolini Basin,’ which means ‘Donetsk Coal Basin’ in Bengali. Historically, the coal-rich region on the banks of the Donetsk River (Donetsk, Luhansk, part of the Dnipropetrovsk province of Ukraine and part of southern Russia) has been known as ‘Donbas.’ At present, however, the word “Donbas” is generally used only to refer to Donetsk and Luhansk. The ongoing war in these two bordering regions on the Russian border is the ‘Donbas War.’
In this case, one thing needs to be clarified. Ukraine gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, and from then until 2014, the whole of Donetsk and Luhansk provinces were under Ukrainian control. The total area of Donetsk Province is 26,518 sq km. At present, the province covers an area of 6,853 sq. Km. The territory is under the control of the People’s Republic of Donetsk, and the remaining 16.64 sq. Km. The territory is under the control of the Ukrainian government. On the other hand, the total area of Luhansk province is 26,63 sq km. At present, the province covers an area of 8,38 sq km. The territory is under the control of the People’s Republic of Luhansk, and the remaining 16,308 sq km. The territory is under the control of the Ukrainian government. That is, the total area of Donbas (Donetsk and Luhansk) is 53,200 sq km, of which about 30.5% (16,230 sq km) is controlled by the two republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, and the remaining about 69.5%. (36,960 sq km)
At least 5,000 Ukrainian soldiers and volunteers have been killed. About 11,000 Ukrainian soldiers and volunteers have been injured in the Donbas war since 2014 (not including the number of mercenaries fighting for the Ukrainian government). On the other hand, the war has killed at least 5,000 soldiers in Donetsk and Luhansk since 2014 and injured at least 13,000. In addition, the war has killed at least 3,500 civilians and displaced at least 1.5 million. Before the start of the war, the population of Donbas was about 7.5 million. Hence, the level of a humanitarian catastrophe in Danbus is proportionately no less than the level of the humanitarian catastrophe in Syria or Yemen.
The Battle of Donbas cannot be considered just a war between Ukraine, Donetsk, and Luhansk. In the context of the current Russian-Western Cold War, the Danbass War has become a virtual “proxy war” between the Western world and Russia, with Ukraine acting as a proxy for the Western world and Donetsk and Luhansk as proxies for Russia. Moreover, the Ukrainian government is calling the war a “Russian-Ukrainian war.” In practice, Russia is cooperating fully with Donetsk and Luhansk, but so far, they have not been directly involved in the war against Ukraine. However, the Ukrainian government is reluctant to acknowledge the separate existence of Donetsk and Luhansk. They called Donetsk and Luhansk “terrorists,” “Russian mercenaries,” “Russian irregular troops” and claimed that the war was Russian aggression against Ukraine since 2014.
But this statement made by the Ukrainian government is irrational. Russia has been mobilizing troops near the Ukrainian border since March 2021, and since then, Ukraine and the West have been accusing Russia of preparing to invade Ukraine. This means that war has not yet begun between Russia and Ukraine, but there is a possibility of war. In this case, Russia and Ukraine have been at war since 2014 – this statement of the Ukrainian government is unacceptable.
In fact, no war has yet broken out between Russia and Ukraine, but in the ongoing war in Russia, Russia is firmly against Ukraine and in favour of Donetsk and Luhansk. In addition, Russia’s occupation of Crimea in 2014 / Crimea’s annexation to Russia, the intense anti-Russian policy adopted by the Ukrainian government inside Ukraine, the growing influence of the Western world in Ukraine, the possibility of Ukraine joining the US-led military alliance ‘NATO.’ Russia and Ukraine have been at loggerheads for some reasons, including the conduct of subversive activities, the suspension of Russia’s low-cost natural gas exports to Ukraine, and the construction of the Nord Stream 2 pipeline.
What are the causes of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict and the Donbas war? Why has this conflict and war started? Why is this conflict/war not being settled? In fact, it is impossible to know the answers to these questions without analyzing the historical background of the relations between Russia and Ukraine. Therefore, a summary of the historical experience of Russian-Ukrainian relations is the subject of this article.
The beginning of the Russian state and the Mongol, Polish and Lithuanian invasions
From ancient times the various branches of the East Slavic people have lived in Ukraine and Belarus in the western part of present-day European Europe. They were collectively known as ‘Rush’ (Русь). In 62 CE, the Vikings from the Scandinavian region (known as ‘Варяги’ or ‘Varyagi’ in Russian) established the first recognized state in Russian history at Navagrod (now Veliki Navagrod city in the northern province of Navagrod). The combination of the Vikings with the indigenous Russian and Fino-Ugric (and later Greater Turkish) nations gave rise to the modern Russian nation. The Viking-derived Ryurikovichi dynasty, centered around Navagrod, began to annex Russian territories. They occupied Kiev (now the capital of Ukraine) in 1972 and transformed the city into the capital of the expanding Russian state.
The state is known in history as ‘Russian,’ ‘Kievskaya Russian’ (Russian: Киевская Русь) and ‘Ancient Russian’ (Russian: Древняя Русь, ‘Drevnia Russian’). Today, Navagrod and Kiev are considered to be the birthplace of Russian civilization. By the tenth century, the Russian state of Kievskaya had become extremely powerful, extending from the Vichula River in the west to the confluence of the Volga and Oka rivers in the east and from the White Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south. But in the middle of the twelfth century, the Russian state of Kievskaya was divided into several states, and the various branches of the Ryurikovich dynasty continued to rule them. Of course, Kiev was still considered a major Russian city.
In 1237–40, the Mongol-controlled Golden Hord (the state was also known as ‘Zuchi Ulus’) invaded Russian territory and destroyed most of the Russian states. Kiev was devastated by the invasion of the Golden Horde in 1240, and since then, the center of the Russian state has moved eastward from Kiev. The Golden Horde did not incorporate the defeated and devastated Russian states into its own state structure. Instead, the lion’s share of the Russian states became the tributary states of the Golden Horde. On the other hand, Poland and Lithuania occupied the western and southern parts of what was then Russian territory (including the lion’s share of present-day Ukraine). Thus, in the wake of the Mongol invasion, the ancient Russian territory was divided into three parts.
After nearly 240 years of incessant warfare against the Golden Horde, the Russian tributary states under the Golden Horde were completely liberated from Mongol domination, and under the leadership of Moscow (now the Russian capital) the ‘Muscovy’ or ‘Moscow Grand Principle.’, ‘Velikoye Knyazhestvo Moskovskoye’) was united under a large state. After several wars against Lithuania and Poland, Moscow recovered much of the territory lost to the two states in the 13th century. Still, the majority of present-day Ukraine remains under Poland and Lithuania. In addition, the Crimean dynasty, a successor to the Golden Gord, annexed part of present-day Ukraine from Lithuania.
The beginning of the division of the Russian nation under Poland-Lithuania
In 1548, the ruler of the Moscow Grand Principles adopted the title “Tsar of the whole of Russia.” As a result, the Moscow Grand Principles adopted the name “Russian Tsarism” (Russian: Русское царство, “Ruskoye Zarastovo”). On the other hand, Poland and Lithuania merged in 1569 to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów). The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth invaded Russia in the early seventeenth century and attempted to occupy Russia, but their invasion failed. At this stage, the territory of present-day Ukraine was divided into three states – Russia, Poland-Lithuania, and the Crimean dynasty under the Ottoman Empire. Most of eastern Ukraine, including the present-day Donbas region, was under Russian control.
It should be noted that during the ‘Kievskaya Russia’ or ‘Ancient Russia,’ all the Slavs living in present-day Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus were considered ‘Russians.’ At that time, Ukrainian or Belarusian identity did not originate. No nation called Ukrainian or Belarus existed on Russian soil before the Mongol invasion. But as a result of the Mongol invasion, Poland and Lithuania seized the lion’s share of present-day Ukraine and Belarus. But the Russians living in the territory did not accept the Polish and Lithuanian domination. The Russians living in the area were predominantly Orthodox Christians, while the Poles and Lithuanians were Catholics. In addition, the Russian language and culture.
In this situation, the Polish and Lithuanian rulers tried to ‘polantize’ and ‘Lithuanianize’ the Russians under their rule. In particular, they made great efforts to impose Catholic Christianity on the Russians. As a result of nearly four centuries of efforts, a section of the Russians under Poland-Lithuania had converted to Catholicism by the middle of the seventeenth century. As a result, among the Russians living under Poland-Lithuania, the seeds of a distinct ethnicity were sown among the rest of the Russians living under Poland-Lithuania and among the Russians living under Russia.
Bohdan Khemlnitsky’s uprising and the beginning of the reunification of Russian and Ukrainian territory
However, most Russians under Poland-Lithuania were dissatisfied with the Polish-Lithuanian regime, which led to revolts against Poland-Lithuania at various times, but all of them failed. In 1847, the Cossacks (Russian: Казаки, ‘Kazakh’) under Poland-Lithuania, led by Bohdan Khmelnitsky, staged a final revolt against Polish-Lithuanian rule. Note that the Cossacks are a branch of the Russian nation, Who lived in separate military-agricultural societies and served mainly as border guards between Russia and Poland-Lithuania. The Cossack Rebellion of 1848 gained the support of the Russian people under Poland-Lithuania, and the revolt became widespread. At a meeting in the town of Pereyaslav in present-day Ukraine in January 1854, the Khemlensky-led Cossacks formally requested military assistance from Russia and, in return, accepted Russia’s allegiance.
As a result, war broke out between Russia and Poland-Lithuania, and Poland-Lithuania was defeated in this war by the age of 18. As a result, Ukrainian territory and Kiev, on the east bank of the Danepar River under Poland-Lithuania, were annexed by Russia. At that time, the word “Ukrainian” meant no nation, and “Ukraine” meant only a geographical area. The Russians living in Ukraine were referred to as ‘Little Russia’ and accordingly, Ukraine was referred to as ‘Little Russia’ (Russian: Малороссия, ‘Malorosia’). This acquaintance existed until the end of the nineteenth century.
That is, until the middle of the seventeenth century, much of present-day eastern Ukraine was under Russian control, and in the second half of the seventeenth century, the Ukrainian territory (including Kiev) on the east bank of the Danepar River, controlled by Poland-Lithuania, was recaptured by Russia. However, the Ukrainian territory on the west bank of the Danepar River was still under the control of Poland-Lithuania, and part of southern Ukraine was under the Crimean dynasty.
Poland-Lithuania partition and creation of two Ukraine
By the eighteenth century, Poland-Lithuania had become weaker, and neighboring countries (Russia, Austria, and Prussia) had begun to divide their territories. Poland-Lithuania’s first, second, and third divisions occurred in 1892, 1893, and 1895, respectively, and the Ukrainian territory controlled by Poland-Lithuania was divided between Russia and Austria. In 1899, the Ukrainian territory, controlled by the Crimean dynasty, came under the direct control of the Ottoman Empire. Still, with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Ottoman War of 18-1892, the territory became part of Russia.
By the end of the eighteenth century, the territory of present-day Ukraine was divided into two states — Russia and Austria. At that time, most of the territory of Ukraine belonged to Russia, and the region was known as ‘Ukraine’ or ‘Little Russia.’ On the other hand, a relatively small part of Ukraine was under Austrian rule, and it came to be known as ‘Western Ukraine.’
The spread of Ukrainian nationalism in ‘Little Russia’ and western Ukraine in the nineteenth century
Nationalist consciousness did not develop in “Little Russia” or in Russian-controlled Ukraine throughout the nineteenth century. According to the Russian official commentary at the time, the “Great Russia” (now Russian nation), the “Little Russian” (now Ukrainian nation), and the “White Russian” (now Belarusian nation) were all part of an integral “All-Russian nation” (Russian: общерусский народ, Obschyursky). Narod ‘) was considered as part. The distinct entity that developed among the “Little Russians” due to their long period of foreign rule was considered by the Russian government to be a kind of territoriality of the Russian nation, and the majority of the Little Russians had not yet adopted the “Ukrainian identity.” It was only in the 180’s that nationalist ideas spread among a small segment of the population of Russian-controlled Ukraine in the context of the growing nationalist consciousness throughout Europe.
However, the Ukrainian nationalists in Russian-controlled Ukraine were largely adherents of leftist and socialist ideology and did not intend to secede from Russia. Their main goal was to gain regional and cultural autonomy within the Russian state. But the process of spreading nationalist consciousness in western Ukraine under Austria-Hungary (in 18 the Austrian Empire became a ‘dual monarchy’ consisting of Austria and Hungary) was completely different.
The Austro-Hungarian ruling class was ethnically German and Hungarian and considered the Russians and other Slavic nations (and the Russians of western Ukraine) to be inferior. Moreover, they were followers of Catholic Christianity; On the other hand, due to the long efforts of the Polish-Lithuanians, part of the Russians in western Ukraine converted to Catholicism, but the majority of them were still Orthodox. Under these circumstances, and in protest of the various forms of discrimination against the Austrian (later Austro-Hungarian) rulers, Russian nationalist thought began to spread among the Russians in western Ukraine.
The Austro-Hungarian government feared that the spread of Russian nationalism among Russians in western Ukraine would lead to separatism in the region. Russia could seize the opportunity to occupy the territory. In this context, they adopt a fancy strategy. Instead of forcing the Russians in western Ukraine to ‘Germanize,’ they decided to create a separate ethnicity among the Russians in western Ukraine. As part of this process, the Austro-Hungarian government established the regional form of Russian in Western Ukraine as a distinct language, and it became known as ‘Ukrainian.’ They encourage Russians there to identify themselves as ‘Ukrainians’ instead of as Russians, and provide some facilities for those receiving ‘Ukrainian’ identities. At the same time, they speak Russian in western Ukraine.
From the Mongol invasion in the first half of the thirteenth century until the nineteenth century, the Russians in western Ukraine were out of Russia’s control and isolated from the Russian mainstream. Poland-Lithuania has been trying to create a separate ethnicity for almost five centuries, and Austria-Hungary has continued that process for more than a century. This situation led to the development of separate nationalities among the Russians in western Ukraine. Gradually the origin of the Ukrainian nation. However, the extent of the spread of Ukrainian nationalism before the First World War could not be understood.
At the same time as the spread of Ukrainian nationalism among the Russians in western Ukraine, the Austro-Hungarian intelligence service took extensive steps to spread Ukrainian nationalism in Russian-controlled Ukraine. In this case, the German intelligence service cooperates with them. As a result of the well-planned activities of the German and Austro-Hungarian intelligence agencies and in response to the massive socio-economic and political changes that took place across Russia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Ukrainian identity and Ukrainian nationalism began to spread in Russian-controlled Ukraine. However, Ukrainian nationalism did not gain as much influence among the people of western Ukraine as it did among the people of Russian-controlled Ukraine.
On the eve of World War I, the Russian government had the idea that in the event of a possible war with Austria-Hungary, the “fraternal” Russian people of western Ukraine would take a stand against “foreign” Austro-Hungarian rule and welcome Russian troops as “liberators.” On the other hand, both the German and Austro-Hungarian governments had the idea that in the event of a possible war with Russia, the nationalist people of Russian-controlled Ukraine would revolt against Russian rule and welcome German and Austro-Hungarian troops as liberators. But after the outbreak of World War I, the equations of Moscow, Berlin, and Vienna changed completely!